A Framework to Model Stellar Irradiated Disks with Frequency-dependent Absorption and Scattering Opacities in Athena++
Stanley A. Baronett, Yan-Fei Jiang, Zhaohuan Zhu, Shangjia Zhang, Philip J. Armitage
astro-ph.EP, astro-ph.IM, astro-ph.SR, physics.comp-ph
Submitted: 2026-06-07
Comments: 32 pages, 17 figures, ApJ revision under review; for associated repository, see https://github.com/sabaronett/irrad_disk/tree/main
Code: https://github.com/sabaronett/irrad_disk
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
The gist: The frequency dependence of opacity is crucial for determining the thermal structure of protoplanetary disks, which in turn influences disk dynamics and planet formation.
Terminology
Abstract
The frequency dependence of opacity is crucial for determining the thermal structure of protoplanetary disks, which in turn influences disk dynamics and planet formation. Yet many disk models adopt simplified thermodynamics, and common radiation-hydrodynamic approaches often use gray opacities, ignore scattering, and yield inaccurate results in regions with intermediate optical depth. We present a comprehensive framework that models stellar irradiation with frequency-dependent absorption and scattering across all optical depths using the Athena++ finite-volume code, extended with multigroup radiation transport and newly implemented radial rays to more accurately represent the stellar flux. To calibrate this framework, we focus exclusively on hydrostatic disk models, allowing us to isolate radiative effects and evaluate the method without additional dynamical complexity. Because dust opacity increases strongly with frequency, ultraviolet stellar irradiation heats the tenuous disk atmosphere while the optically thick midplane remains cooler. This vertical temperature gradient is captured more accurately when more frequency bands are used or when scattering is included. Our hydrostatic models achieve equilibrium temperatures that differ from Monte Carlo radiative-transfer benchmarks on average by 2--5% with 64 frequency bands and 7--11% with 3 bands. Reducing the number of bands lowers computational cost by at least an order of magnitude while increasing the maximum possible temperature deviation only from 8% to 19%. This calibration demonstrates the accuracy and efficiency of the framework and provides a solid foundation for future self-consistent studies of irradiated protoplanetary disks, including fully dynamical simulations and applications involving chemical processes and time-dependent stellar luminosity.
Sources
- Planet Formation Theory in the Era of ALMA and Kepler: from Pebbles to Exoplanets
- An efficient algorithm for two-dimensional radiative transfer in axisymmetric circumstellar envelopes and disks
- Hydro-, Magnetohydro-, and Dust-Gas Dynamics of Protoplanetary Disks
- AREPO-IDORT: Implicit Discrete Ordinates Radiation Transport for Radiation Magnetohydrodynamics on an Unstructured Moving Mesh
- Multidimensional half-moment multigroup radiative transfer. Improving moment-based thermal models of circumstellar disks
- Planet-Disk Interactions
- Multi-frequency analysis of the ALMA and VLA high resolution continuum observations of the substructured disc around CI Tau. Preference for sub-mm-sized low-porosity amorphous carbon grains
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